{"id":15017,"date":"2024-08-19T09:16:12","date_gmt":"2024-08-19T07:16:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/service-directory\/fertility-analyses\/"},"modified":"2026-05-22T19:29:05","modified_gmt":"2026-05-22T17:29:05","slug":"fertility-analyses","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/service-directory\/fertility-analyses\/","title":{"rendered":"Fertility analyses"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"15017\" class=\"elementor elementor-15017 elementor-10613\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fe7e95d u-container e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"fe7e95d\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-841abf7 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"841abf7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-910d7e9 exclude_from_toc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"910d7e9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Infertility<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d555a20 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d555a20\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The causes of infertility are diverse and may lie with either the woman or the man. In some cases, underlying genetic changes can be identified, enabling targeted therapeutic measures. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-30e9060 u-container e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"30e9060\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-22aa1a6 exclude_from_toc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"22aa1a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Request Test<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a3d5780 elementor-icon-list--layout-traditional elementor-list-item-link-full_width elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-list\" data-id=\"a3d5780\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"icon-list.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<ul class=\"elementor-icon-list-items\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"elementor-icon-list-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-vial\" viewBox=\"0 0 480 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M477.7 186.1L309.5 18.3c-3.1-3.1-8.2-3.1-11.3 0l-34 33.9c-3.1 3.1-3.1 8.2 0 11.3l11.2 11.1L33 316.5c-38.8 38.7-45.1 102-9.4 143.5 20.6 24 49.5 36 78.4 35.9 26.4 0 52.8-10 72.9-30.1l246.3-245.7 11.2 11.1c3.1 3.1 8.2 3.1 11.3 0l34-33.9c3.1-3 3.1-8.1 0-11.2zM318 256H161l148-147.7 78.5 78.3L318 256z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text\">Sample material: EDTA whole blood (molecular genetics), heparin whole blood (chromosome analysis)<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"elementor-icon-list-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-microscope\" viewBox=\"0 0 512 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M160 320h12v16c0 8.84 7.16 16 16 16h40c8.84 0 16-7.16 16-16v-16h12c17.67 0 32-14.33 32-32V64c0-17.67-14.33-32-32-32V16c0-8.84-7.16-16-16-16h-64c-8.84 0-16 7.16-16 16v16c-17.67 0-32 14.33-32 32v224c0 17.67 14.33 32 32 32zm304 128h-1.29C493.24 413.99 512 369.2 512 320c0-105.88-86.12-192-192-192v64c70.58 0 128 57.42 128 128s-57.42 128-128 128H48c-26.51 0-48 21.49-48 48 0 8.84 7.16 16 16 16h480c8.84 0 16-7.16 16-16 0-26.51-21.49-48-48-48zm-360-32h208c4.42 0 8-3.58 8-8v-16c0-4.42-3.58-8-8-8H104c-4.42 0-8 3.58-8 8v16c0 4.42 3.58 8 8 8z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text\">Test methods: Depending on the analysis (allele-specific genotyping, fragment length analysis, MLPA, NGS)<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"elementor-icon-list-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-file-alt\" viewBox=\"0 0 384 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M224 136V0H24C10.7 0 0 10.7 0 24v464c0 13.3 10.7 24 24 24h336c13.3 0 24-10.7 24-24V160H248c-13.2 0-24-10.8-24-24zm64 236c0 6.6-5.4 12-12 12H108c-6.6 0-12-5.4-12-12v-8c0-6.6 5.4-12 12-12h168c6.6 0 12 5.4 12 12v8zm0-64c0 6.6-5.4 12-12 12H108c-6.6 0-12-5.4-12-12v-8c0-6.6 5.4-12 12-12h168c6.6 0 12 5.4 12 12v8zm0-72v8c0 6.6-5.4 12-12 12H108c-6.6 0-12-5.4-12-12v-8c0-6.6 5.4-12 12-12h168c6.6 0 12 5.4 12 12zm96-114.1v6.1H256V0h6.1c6.4 0 12.5 2.5 17 7l97.9 98c4.5 4.5 7 10.6 7 16.9z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text\">Required documents: <\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4a46c8f elementor-icon-list--layout-traditional elementor-list-item-link-full_width elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-list\" data-id=\"4a46c8f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"icon-list.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<ul class=\"elementor-icon-list-items\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"elementor-icon-list-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/HLN_Anforderungsformular_Kinderwunsch.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-download\" viewBox=\"0 0 512 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M216 0h80c13.3 0 24 10.7 24 24v168h87.7c17.8 0 26.7 21.5 14.1 34.1L269.7 378.3c-7.5 7.5-19.8 7.5-27.3 0L90.1 226.1c-12.6-12.6-3.7-34.1 14.1-34.1H192V24c0-13.3 10.7-24 24-24zm296 376v112c0 13.3-10.7 24-24 24H24c-13.3 0-24-10.7-24-24V376c0-13.3 10.7-24 24-24h146.7l49 49c20.1 20.1 52.5 20.1 72.6 0l49-49H488c13.3 0 24 10.7 24 24zm-124 88c0-11-9-20-20-20s-20 9-20 20 9 20 20 20 20-9 20-20zm64 0c0-11-9-20-20-20s-20 9-20 20 9 20 20 20 20-9 20-20z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text\">Fertility request form<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"elementor-icon-list-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/HLN_Einverstaendniserklaerung.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-download\" viewBox=\"0 0 512 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M216 0h80c13.3 0 24 10.7 24 24v168h87.7c17.8 0 26.7 21.5 14.1 34.1L269.7 378.3c-7.5 7.5-19.8 7.5-27.3 0L90.1 226.1c-12.6-12.6-3.7-34.1 14.1-34.1H192V24c0-13.3 10.7-24 24-24zm296 376v112c0 13.3-10.7 24-24 24H24c-13.3 0-24-10.7-24-24V376c0-13.3 10.7-24 24-24h146.7l49 49c20.1 20.1 52.5 20.1 72.6 0l49-49H488c13.3 0 24 10.7 24 24zm-124 88c0-11-9-20-20-20s-20 9-20 20 9 20 20 20 20-9 20-20zm64 0c0-11-9-20-20-20s-20 9-20 20 9 20 20 20 20-9 20-20z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-icon-list-text\">Consent form<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8a4386c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"8a4386c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Detailed information on sample submission can be found <a href=\"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/sample-submission\/\">here<\/a>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ed27ac9 elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"ed27ac9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h1&quot;,&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;,&quot;h4&quot;],&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:&quot;.exclude_from_toc&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;No headings were found on this page.&quot;,&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;numbers&quot;,&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tTable of contents\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__ed27ac9\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__ed27ac9\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__ed27ac9\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-235d9c8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"235d9c8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">General information<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c851a4e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c851a4e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The treatment of childless couples involves numerous medical aspects on both the female and male side. Genetic diagnostics, or precise knowledge of the cause of the fertility disorder, is an important component of the therapeutic options for infertility. <\/p><p>The following information and recommendations are based on the German guidelines on \u201cDiagnostics and therapy prior to assisted reproductive medical treatment\u201d (S2K level, <em>AWMF Registry No<\/em>. <em>015\/085<\/em>, <em>02\/2019<\/em>), which also recommend the following algorithm for genetic diagnostics in couples with infertility:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7319027 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"7319027\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/Kinderwunsch-Flowchart.png\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-15018\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/Kinderwunsch-Flowchart.png 1920w, https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/Kinderwunsch-Flowchart-300x169.png 300w, https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/Kinderwunsch-Flowchart-1024x576.png 1024w, https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/Kinderwunsch-Flowchart-768x432.png 768w, https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/wp-content\/uploads\/Kinderwunsch-Flowchart-1536x864.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0a0f30c elementor-view-framed elementor-position-inline-start elementor-mobile-position-inline-start elementor-shape-circle elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"0a0f30c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<span  class=\"elementor-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-mars\" viewBox=\"0 0 384 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M372 64h-79c-10.7 0-16 12.9-8.5 20.5l16.9 16.9-80.7 80.7c-22.2-14-48.5-22.1-76.7-22.1C64.5 160 0 224.5 0 304s64.5 144 144 144 144-64.5 144-144c0-28.2-8.1-54.5-22.1-76.7l80.7-80.7 16.9 16.9c7.6 7.6 20.5 2.2 20.5-8.5V76c0-6.6-5.4-12-12-12zM144 384c-44.1 0-80-35.9-80-80s35.9-80 80-80 80 35.9 80 80-35.9 80-80 80z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span  >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGenetic causes in men\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e02dc88 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e02dc88\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The most important indicator of a genetically caused fertility disorder in men is an abnormal semen analysis. If a genetic cause is suspected based on the results of a basic andrological assessment, a specific genetic test should be considered as part of genetic counselling. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-aa24995 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"aa24995\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Disorders of spermatogenesis<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4a2891b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4a2891b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Disorders of spermatogenesis are conditions or diseases that impair the normal process of spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis is the biological process in which spermatogonia, the stem cells in the testes, develop into mature sperm through various developmental stages. Disruptions in this process can lead to a range of problems, from reduced sperm production (oligozoospermia) to the complete absence of sperm in the ejaculate (azoospermia).  <\/p><p>Azoospermia occurs when either no sperm are produced (non-obstructive azoospermia) or they cannot reach the ejaculate due to an obstruction (obstructive azoospermia). Oligozoospermia, by contrast, is present when the sperm count in the ejaculate is lower than normal (usually fewer than 15 million sperm per millilitre of ejaculate). <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c253a7e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"c253a7e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Non-obstructive disorders of spermatogenesis<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ac9c318 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ac9c318\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>&#8220;In non-obstructive azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia (<5 million\/ml), chromosome analysis should be performed after other causes have been excluded.\"<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7829522 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7829522\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Y-chromosome microdeletions<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3ee6372 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3ee6372\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In addition to chromosomal aberrations, microdeletions in the azoospermia factor (AZF) region of the Y chromosome are among the most common genetic causes of non-obstructive azoo- or oligozoospermia. The prevalence of AZF deletions is approximately 15\u201320% in non-obstructive azoospermia and about 7\u201310% in severe oligozoospermia. The AZF region contains genes (DAZ and RBM) that are essential for spermatogenesis. Loss of function of these genes leads either to abnormal development of spermatogonia in the testes or to the formation of immature, condensed sperm.   <\/p><p>Microdeletions can occur in different regions of the AZF locus (AZFa, AZFb, AZFc). A precise molecular genetic analysis and description of the deletion is of great importance, particularly for couples wishing to conceive. About 50% of men with AZFc deletions may be able to obtain sperm via testicular sperm extraction (TESE), in contrast to patients with deletions in other regions, where this is not the case.  <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-411a6e5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"411a6e5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>\u201cIn non-obstructive azoospermia, and in severe oligospermia (&lt; 5 million\/ml), after other causes have been excluded, an analysis for AZF microdeletions (AZFa,b,c) should be performed.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-51ec4cc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"51ec4cc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Monogenic disorders of spermatogenesis<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-90a4fb7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"90a4fb7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In very rare cases, monogenic variants may also be the cause of non-obstructive azoospermia.<\/p><p>In patients without an AZF deletion, analysis of relevant genes as part of a multi-gene panel using next-generation sequencing (NGS) may be considered.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-395085b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"395085b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>\u201cIf a rare monogenic disorder of spermatogenesis is suspected, genetic analysis may be offered.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7b94103 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7b94103\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Obstructive disorders of spermatogenesis<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b61d915 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b61d915\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In obstructive azoospermia, testicular tissue shows intact spermiogenesis, but the vas deferens are blocked or not properly developed. This congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens (CBAVD), or more rarely congenital unilateral absence of the vas deferens (CUAVD), is present in about 2% of all men with azoospermia. In most cases, mutations in the CFTR gene (causative for cystic fibrosis) are responsible. In around 80% of men with CBAVD, at least one mutation in the CFTR gene can be detected. Since only homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations have been shown to lead to CBAVD, complete sequencing of the CFTR gene (including the 5T allele) should be performed in these cases. This is also crucial for risk assessment for future children. If CFTR-associated CBAVD is present, the prospects of success for assisted reproductive techniques such as TESE or ICSI are promising.      <\/p><p>The ADGRG2 gene is another locus known to be causative for CBAVD.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a96730a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a96730a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-ad3dc443915c37a93742455319733a83\"><em>\u201cIf obstructive azoospermia is suspected, analysis of the CFTR gene should be performed after other causes have been excluded. This should include all relevant pathogenic mutations, including the TG-T repeat in intron 8; if only a heterozygous mutation is found, complete sequencing should be performed.\u201d*<\/em><\/p><p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-6b7d5de8ca081811e3cf2e964d8c0863\"><em>\u201cIf CFTR analysis in obstructive azoospermia yields an unremarkable result, analysis of the ADGRG2 gene should be performed.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5670bb1 elementor-view-framed elementor-position-inline-start elementor-mobile-position-inline-start elementor-shape-circle elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"5670bb1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<span  class=\"elementor-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-venus\" viewBox=\"0 0 288 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288 176c0-79.5-64.5-144-144-144S0 96.5 0 176c0 68.5 47.9 125.9 112 140.4V368H76c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12v40c0 6.6 5.4 12 12 12h36v36c0 6.6 5.4 12 12 12h40c6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12v-36h36c6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12v-40c0-6.6-5.4-12-12-12h-36v-51.6c64.1-14.5 112-71.9 112-140.4zm-224 0c0-44.1 35.9-80 80-80s80 35.9 80 80-35.9 80-80 80-80-35.9-80-80z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span  >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGenetic causes in women\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b366b41 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b366b41\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Approximately 40% of women who experience infertility are affected by ovulatory dysfunction. In these cases, a thorough evaluation of the hormonal axes is indicated to assess the presence of hypo- or hypergonadotropic hypogonadism as well as hyperandrogenaemia. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d78e370 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"d78e370\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-809e387 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"809e387\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism in women can occur due to various genetic causes that may impair normal ovarian function. In about 10% of women, a sex chromosome aberration (often also mosaic) such as Turner syndrome (45,X) or triple X syndrome (47,XXX) is present. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3cf14d7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3cf14d7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-ad3dc443915c37a93742455319733a83\"><em>\u201cIn women with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, chromosome analysis should be performed after other causes have been excluded.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4e49409 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4e49409\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Ovarian insufficiency<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-949a48d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"949a48d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Premutations in the FMR1 gene, characterised by CGG repeats with a length of 55\u2013200, are associated with an increased risk of primary or secondary ovarian insufficiency. If such a premutation is passed on to offspring, there is also a high likelihood that a full mutation will develop in children (repeat lengths &gt; 200). Full mutations in the FMR1 gene are causative for fragile X syndrome, which is associated with mild to severe intellectual disability and may be accompanied by behavioural disorders and characteristic physical features.  <\/p><p>In women with primary ovarian insufficiency, especially those with a notable family history, an FMR1 premutation is present in up to 15%.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-41b4416 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"41b4416\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-ad3dc443915c37a93742455319733a83\"><em>\u201cIn primary or premature ovarian insufficiency, genetic analysis of CGG repeats in the FMR1 gene should be performed after other causes have been excluded.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-07b5e09 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"07b5e09\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a13f14b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a13f14b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) in women is characterised by a deficiency of gonadotropic hormones (in particular follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and luteinising hormone, LH), which are normally produced by the pituitary gland in the brain. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating ovarian function and the production of oestrogen and progesterone. <\/p><p>The prevalence of congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in women is between 1:30,000 and 1:40,000. Up to 40% of the molecular causes of this condition can now be attributed to mutations in around 20 genes, including GNRHR, FSHB, LEP\/LEPR, LHB, and FGFR1. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-429ac0e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"429ac0e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-ad3dc443915c37a93742455319733a83\"><em>\u201cIn women with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH), genetic analysis of CHH genes may be performed after exogenous causes have been excluded.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-91e7134 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"91e7134\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Hyperandrogenaemia<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-aae7e62 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"aae7e62\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Hyperandrogenaemia refers to an increased level of male sex hormones in the blood, with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) being the predominant genetic cause. The most common form is autosomal recessive 21-hydroxylase deficiency caused by mutations in the CYP21A2 gene. Genetic testing is recommended, as endocrine management depends on the underlying enzyme defect and the type of mutations detected.  <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e154409 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e154409\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-ad3dc443915c37a93742455319733a83\"><em>\u201cIf congenital adrenal hyperplasia is suspected, genetic diagnostics should be performed.\u201d<\/em><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/register.awmf.org\/de\/leitlinien\/detail\/015-085\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">S2K guideline<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-143f688 elementor-view-framed elementor-position-inline-start elementor-mobile-position-inline-start elementor-shape-circle elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"143f688\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<span  class=\"elementor-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-venus-mars\" viewBox=\"0 0 576 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M564 0h-79c-10.7 0-16 12.9-8.5 20.5l16.9 16.9-48.7 48.7C422.5 72.1 396.2 64 368 64c-33.7 0-64.6 11.6-89.2 30.9 14 16.7 25 36 32.1 57.1 14.5-14.8 34.7-24 57.1-24 44.1 0 80 35.9 80 80s-35.9 80-80 80c-22.3 0-42.6-9.2-57.1-24-7.1 21.1-18 40.4-32.1 57.1 24.5 19.4 55.5 30.9 89.2 30.9 79.5 0 144-64.5 144-144 0-28.2-8.1-54.5-22.1-76.7l48.7-48.7 16.9 16.9c2.4 2.4 5.4 3.5 8.4 3.5 6.2 0 12.1-4.8 12.1-12V12c0-6.6-5.4-12-12-12zM144 64C64.5 64 0 128.5 0 208c0 68.5 47.9 125.9 112 140.4V400H76c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12v40c0 6.6 5.4 12 12 12h36v36c0 6.6 5.4 12 12 12h40c6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12v-36h36c6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12v-40c0-6.6-5.4-12-12-12h-36v-51.6c64.1-14.6 112-71.9 112-140.4 0-79.5-64.5-144-144-144zm0 224c-44.1 0-80-35.9-80-80s35.9-80 80-80 80 35.9 80 80-35.9 80-80 80z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span  >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGenetic causes in the couple\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b792950 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"b792950\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">KIR and HLA-C genotypes<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a3c345d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a3c345d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span data-contrast=\"auto\">The interaction between natural killer cells (NK cells) in the uterine lining and the developing embryo is among the immunological factors that significantly influence the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. This interaction is mediated by killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) expressed by uterine NK cells and HLA-C antigens on the surface of the trophoblast. Both the KIR gene family and HLA-C molecules exhibit extremely high genetic variability. Although the complex interplay between the two gene systems has not yet been fully elucidated, there is evidence that certain combinations of maternal KIR genotypes and fetal HLA-C molecules are associated with a higher risk of implantation failure, recurrent miscarriage, and pregnancy complications such as pre-eclampsia.   <\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"134245417\":false,\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":6,\"335551620\":6,\"335559740\":288}\"> <\/span><\/p><p><span data-contrast=\"auto\">KIR and HLA-C genotyping as part of reproductive medical treatment is performed by analysing the genomic DNA of the couple wishing to conceive. This assesses which sets of activating and inhibitory KIR are present in the woman, and determines the man\u2019s HLA-C genotype (HLA-C1\/C1, HLA-C1\/C2, or HLA-C2\/C2). If gamete donation is required for treatment, the egg donor or sperm donor will also undergo HLA-C genotyping.  <\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"134245417\":false,\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":6,\"335551620\":6,\"335559740\":288}\"> <\/span><\/p><p><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Current immunological understanding of the KIR\u2013HLA-C interaction is not sufficient to conclusively establish a causal relationship between specific parental genotypes and the occurrence of implantation failure, recurrent miscarriages, or pregnancy complications. However, various studies show that the information obtained from KIR and HLA genotyping can help to <\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"134245417\":false,\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":6,\"335551620\":6,\"335559740\":288}\"> <\/span><\/p><ul><li data-leveltext=\"\u2022\" data-font=\"\" data-listid=\"1\" data-list-defn-props=\"{\"335551671\":0,\"335552541\":1,\"335559685\":720,\"335559991\":360,\"469769242\":[8226],\"469777803\":\"left\",\"469777804\":\"\u2022\",\"469777815\":\"multilevel\"}\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"0\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">determine the optimal number of embryos for transfer in the IVF cycle<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"134245417\":false,\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":6,\"335551620\":6,\"335559740\":288}\"> <\/span><\/li><\/ul><ul><li data-leveltext=\"\u2022\" data-font=\"\" data-listid=\"1\" data-list-defn-props=\"{\"335551671\":0,\"335552541\":1,\"335559685\":720,\"335559991\":360,\"469769242\":[8226],\"469777803\":\"left\",\"469777804\":\"\u2022\",\"469777815\":\"multilevel\"}\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"1\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">help prevent possible complications during pregnancy, and<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"134245417\":false,\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":6,\"335551620\":6,\"335559740\":288}\"> <\/span><\/li><\/ul><ul><li data-leveltext=\"\u2022\" data-font=\"\" data-listid=\"1\" data-list-defn-props=\"{\"335551671\":0,\"335552541\":1,\"335559685\":720,\"335559991\":360,\"469769242\":[8226],\"469777803\":\"left\",\"469777804\":\"\u2022\",\"469777815\":\"multilevel\"}\" aria-setsize=\"-1\" data-aria-posinset=\"2\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">in the case of gamete donation, select a donor whose HLA-C genotype is immunologically compatible with the future mother\u2019s KIR genotype<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{\"134245417\":false,\"201341983\":0,\"335551550\":6,\"335551620\":6,\"335559740\":288}\"> <\/span><\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6f539c7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"6f539c7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/service-directory\/\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">Back<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Current guidelines on diagnostics for infertility<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":14983,"parent":14889,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-15017","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15017","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15017"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15017\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":15019,"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15017\/revisions\/15019"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/14889"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/14983"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/hln-genetik.at\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15017"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}